Anglo-Catholicism – a movement for our time?

The Oxford movement found its name because it was centred at the University of Oxford.  It’s goal was to reclaim the ancient “catholic,” faith and traditions within the Church of England in in the face of the Protestant tendencies of the church.

The argument was that the Anglican church is by history and identity a truly “catholic” church. Notice the small “c” in catholic. That means it is referring to the universal church with the word catholic applied in it broad meaning of "through the whole," "universal," "worldwide," "all inclusive."  Using the capital “C” means we are talking about the Roman Catholic Church. 

The movement's immediate cause was the change in the relationship between the state and the Church of England from 1828 to 1832.

Laws requiring members of municipal corporations and government office holders to receive the Lord’s Supper in the Church of England were repealed, and a law was passed that removed most of the restrictions formerly imposed on Roman Catholics.

For a short time, it seemed possible that the Church of England might be disestablished and lose its endowments.

Out of this historical soup, many loyal Anglicans were wanting to assert that the Church of England was authentic because it taught the apostolic Christian truths and because its bishops were in the apostolic succession (i.e., able to trace their authority and office back in an unbroken line to the Apostles).

Leaders of the movement were

John Henry Newman (1801–90), a clergyman and subsequently a convert to Roman Catholicism and a cardinal;

Richard Hurrell Froude (1803–36), a clergyman;

John Keble (1792–1866), a clergyman and poet;

and Edward Pusey (1800–82), a clergyman and professor at Oxford.

The theological reflections of the movement were published in 90 Tracts for the Times (1833–41) which led to those proponents and supporters of this reform being called Tractarians.: https://anglicanhistory.org/tracts/  They asserted that:

the doctrinal authority of the catholic church to be absolute, (notice the small “c” used here). It is only when the catholic, universal Church comes together that what was set in place by the apostles could be changed.

and by “catholic” they understood that which was faithful to the teaching of the early and undivided church, the teachings of the Apostles (which is the equivalent of “tradition).

They believed the Church of England to be such a catholic church.

This rediscovery of its origins enabled some noticeable changes in the way the local parishes operated. 

There was an increased use of ceremony and ritual in church worship.

 A number of new Anglican monastic communities for men and for women were established,

there was a greater emphasis on having well trained clergy who in turn prioritised the pastoral care of their church members.

What then is Anglo-Catholicism?

Anglo-Catholicism traces its roots to a time when the Church of England was in crisis during the mid-1800s. For decades modernity (the shape and nature of modernity is spelt out at the end of this reflection) had been slowly infiltrating the ecclesiastical hierarchy of the Church of England and producing an anaemic church, one that had lost its apostolic zeal and was only going through the motions of being Church.  It had become just one more part of the English establishment and had prioritised its establishment responsibilities over its primary vocation to bring the living Christ into the lives of its people and nation.

Rather than approaching the Church with dynamic biblical vision as the “Body of Christ” (1 Cor. 12:27) and “the pillar and foundation of truth” (1 Tim. 3:15), many of the faithful (especially the clergy!) acted as if the Church put the priorities of the British empire before the demands of the Kingdom of God.

In a conclusion that resonates in today’s world, many of the faithful and the clergy grew concerned that the Church had become too worldly, and too political. It had taken up the prevailing fads and philosophies of the world in which it ministered, to the point where it had little or nothing to offer as an alternative.  It was floundering and revival was desperately needed.

As we try to make sense of these confusing times, the history of the Church of England during this period went through a process of renewal and revitalisation, both of which are manifested in two very different ways:

(A)    The first response is the Evangelical movement.

This movement transformation had already been in place for years thanks to the Wesley brothers and others who prompted the Methodist movement.

Its answer to the crisis of modernity was to diminish the importance of an established church one that was hierarchically centred and this led to them redirecting their efforts into the day to day lives of the individual believer. Evangelical focus was on the individuals who were living in the world and their need for a vital, dynamic faith.

 Individual Christians, and more importantly, independent faith communities were the order of the day. Each local faith community was a church in its own right, and the consequences of this stress on the independence of the local over the central is a challenge we endure today. There was no overarching governance, meaning every church became an authority unto itself.

Theologically they were presenting a much simpler message: if Christians went through a “conversion experience” (being “born again”) the whole Church would be rejuvenated, and the focus would go back to where it should be – living a Gospel-centred existence. On top of this, there was an insistence on the primacy of the scriptures, even to the point of a literal interpretation of the texts.

(B)   The second response is known as the Oxford Movement.

1830 was a significant date in the Church of England because of two bills presented to the House of Parliament:  The repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts and Catholic Emancipation.  These two ended the special relationship between the Church and Parliament.  One outcome was that it put into place what some authors have described as setting up what was “a free trade in religion” (more detail on the turbulent times can be found in the end notes at the end of this paper).  Freed from the anchor that was the Established Church, there was room for much more creativity and independence.

Responding to the consequences of those changes, clergy and laity centred in Oxford began publishing tracts (pamphlets) that argued for Anglicanism’s rightful heritage as a full member of the ancient Church by virtue of her unbroken succession of apostolic bishops. They argued that they were not starting up a new Church but rather reclaiming the form and visions of the Christianity when it first took root on the island with the coming of the Romans in 43AD (a full history of the Anglican Church can be found in the end notes) https://anglicancompass.com/what-is-anglo-catholicism/

Because of this demonstrative connection of authority to the patristic Church and her Holy Apostles, Anglicans could, if they so desired, reform themselves to be more in sync with the universal Church (catholic).  Thus, the argument was that the Church throughout Britain did not begin with the Reformation.

As a distinctly Western branch of the Church, this meant

reviving Anglicanism by striving to bring it into greater conformity with the ancient and long-revered Western rite.

                                                                                                                                               That is, the theology, devotion, and liturgy common in the Latin West from the time of the Church Fathers to the Middle Ages and beyond had been watered down, and re-written to the point where it was lost to the contemporary Church. 

However, it could be revived and the Spirit-led enthusiasm for Christ once more could become what drives and shapes Anglicanism.  For that to happen, there had to be a thoroughgoing revitalisation (root and branches but not in terms of the 1640 petition of the same name which makes very interesting reading https://history.hanover.edu/texts/engref/er97.html

It was the Oxford Movement’s hope that such “catholicising” of the Church of England would reclaim for her a proper vision of herself as a divinely founded institution with a significant and unique ministry in the mission of the universal church. This in turn would breakdown the influence modernity had in the activities of the Church and empower her to fulfill her rightful call to preach the gospel and celebrate the sacraments.

The claim of a catholic Anglicanism gained popularity with many Anglicans at the time. Over the following century, men and women committed themselves to the task of “catholicising” Anglicanism by pressing deeper into the theology and practice of the Ancient Church. The “result” came in the early 20th century with what is now called “Anglo-Catholicism.”

The identity and claim of Anglo-Catholicism are thus the same as those of the Oxford Movement, yet more developed:

by virtue of our valid apostolic succession, Anglicanism is truly a Western branch of Jesus Christ’s One Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church.

This means she can and should strive to maintain the theology, practice, and devotion of the ancient and undivided Church (pre-AD 1054), with the methodology of its teaching suitably shaped to communicate God’s Good news in ways that enabled people to hear and respond to what God was saying to them.

Rome represents the major player in Western Christianity, which is why it would be reasonable for Anglo-Catholics draw from her ancient forms of worship and devotion.  As they observed, this mutual sharing of these traditions is because we believe we fundamentally share the same heritage. Some context might help:

The year 1054 is significant in Church history because it marks the "Great Schism," which officially split the Christian Church into the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church.

The split came about over theological disputes between the leaders of the Eastern and Western Christian communities and disagreement over matters of authority and the primacy of the Church in Rome.

 The major question was around the authority of the Pope and the "filioque" clause regarding the Holy Spirit; this split remains in effect today. 

Filioque is Latin for “and the Son” and refers to the part of the Nicene Creed wherein Christians declare the Holy Spirit “proceeds from the Father and the Son.” The Orthodox—along with Eastern Catholic Churches—do not recite this part of the Creed.  The insist that the Creed should teach that Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father,  and not from the Father and the Son.

Anglo-Catholicism sees itself as a part of this fractured Church, and though there were clear differences, she could make valid claims to being the contemporary embodiment of the Anglican community that had arrived with the Romans all those centuries ago.  Not a new establishment but a part of the Apostolic community founded by and built upon Jesus Christ himself.

In practice, this means:

1.    They adhere to the theology of the Seven Ecumenical Councils.

The first seven ecumenical councils in Christianity were: 

·          First Council of Nicaea: Held in 325 CE

·          First Council of Constantinople: Held in 381 CE

·          Council of Ephesus: Held in 431 CE

·          Council of Chalcedon: Held in 451 CE

·          Second Council of Constantinople: Held in 553 CE

·          Third Council of Constantinople: Held from 680 to 681 CE

·          Second Council of Nicaea: Held in 787 CE

The Church recognizes 21 ecumenical councils that took place over about 1,900 years. The ecumenical nature of some councils was disputed for a time but was eventually accepted.

2.          We believe in and celebrate the Seven Sacraments of Christ, with an emphasis on Eucharistic Sacrifice and Baptismal Regeneration.

3.           there is a more nuanced approach to Justification, emphasizing incorporation into Christ over assertions of righteousness.

4.           Regarding the Anglican formularies (e.g., the 39 Articles of Religion), we view them as historic documents that need to be read through the lens of the larger catholic tradition.

Notice and warning: 

There are many who misinterpret Anglo-Catholicism’s mission. The most common criticism is that they are simply mimicking Roman Catholicism or at least seeking to rejoin the Roman Catholic Church.  This criticism comes about largely because Anglo-catholics build their liturgical traditions in the light of the ancient Western rite and the language they use is the language of the ancient Churches the Reformation rejected.

The historical split between the Eastern and Western Christian traditions is known as the Great Schism, which occurred in 1054, largely due to disagreements over papal authority and theological differences.

The "Ancient Western Rite" refers to the liturgical practices of the early Christian Church in Western Europe, before the major schism between the Eastern and West.

Explanation

The Western Rite has been practised since the first century. 

It is an outreach to Western Christians who want to re-establish the Western Church as it was before the Great Schism of 1054. 

The Western Rite calendar includes many Orthodox saints and feast days that were lost during the estrangement from Western heritage. 

The Western Rite's liturgy includes sections that are celebrated in silence, which is a central part of Orthodox spirituality. 

Is the Western Rite liturgy fully Orthodox?

 It is helpful to pause here for a look at the liturgies that shapes the Anglo-Catholic liturgy today. 

The liturgy used in the Western Rite asserts that it was first written by the Apostle Peter and codified by St. Gregory the Great. It is responsible for nurturing the sanctity of hundreds of saints. It has been revered by all the Church Fathers, and embraced by many modern-day saints, hierarchs, and theologians.

 In the 6th century, St. Gregory the Great took the Roman liturgy that had been passed down from the apostles and reorganised it. St. Gregory revised the variable parts of the liturgy, the Collects, Epistles, and Gospels. Manuscripts still survive from the 6th century, and they show the same prayers, and the same service, the Orthodox churches use in the 21st century.

The unity of rite in the Orthodox Church is a late phenomenon and the Church never considered liturgical uniformity as being essential for her unity.  It has been formed by and established under the guidance of the Holy Spirit and worked comfortably with variety and diversity.  

The Anglo-Catholic movement felt free to take up and adapt liturgical practices from these ancient churches because we believe we fundamentally share the same heritage. 

Anglo-Catholic Liturgy

Perhaps no other Church practice highlights the particularity of the Anglo-Catholic identity more than its liturgy. Thomas Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer (BCP) is a work that is rightly celebrated and admired. It achieves its goal of worshipping the Lord in the “beauty of holiness” (Ps. 96:9).

However, it is not perfect, and its limitations become obvious when studied in the light of more ancient traditions and practices. Significant parts of the ancient Eucharistic sacrifice were edited out due to Cranmer’s personal theological opinions and others were moved around within the liturgies. This is why many Anglo-Catholic parishes have, in the past, preferred to use what is called the Anglican Missal.

This liturgy takes the Prayer Book’s rite for Holy Communion (usually the one found in the 1928 edition) and brings it into conformity with the Western rite by reintroducing those deleted elements. Things like:

·       the Introit (opening Psalm chant)

·       the Gradual (chant before the Gospel reading)

·       the private prayers (prayers said by the priest as he sets the altar),

·       and the “Behold the Lamb of God” (just to name a few)

These are set within Cranmer’s liturgy to create an “English” version of the Western Mass. Recent BCPs (1979 and 2019), though, have contributed to a decline in the use of the Missal.

This is because these newer liturgies incorporated many catholic elements back into Prayerbook tradition.

The point is this: while the BCP is cherished among Anglo-Catholics, it is not upheld as the unchangeable and unchallenged standard of worship. For that, we look to the wider Western tradition.

It’s also worth mentioning that many aspects of liturgy that are taken for granted by Anglicanism today were originally prompted by Anglo-Catholics.

The Anglican parish in the catholic tradition will celebrate the Eucharist at least every Sunday and often, each day of the week as well.  

They place candles on the altar, bow or genuflect in the service, use incense (even if only on occasion), or put a coloured stole on the priest.

 

Anglo-Catholic Devotional Life

The heart of Anglo-Catholicism is Jesus Christ which means it is incarnational, believing that every aspect of the life of individuals and faith communities are opportunities to engage with Christ.   It is thus Christo-centric.  Its worship and devotional life are centred in on making the fullness of Jesus as the incarnate son of God known, worshipped and celebrated by all people.  

Incarnational theology:  Central to Christianity:

The Incarnation, as described in the Bible, is a core Christian doctrine, signifying that Jesus Christ is both God and man. 

An incarnational approach encourages Christians to live in a way that reflects Jesus' life, living a life that by grace enable them to be living witness to the presence of Christ engaging with men and women in their human communities.  This led to a ministry prioritising compassion, love, and service within their communities. 

This theology emphasizes that God is not distant or removed, but actively present in the world through Jesus' human experience, making faith applicable to daily situations.  Christian living could not be limited to Sunday worship but needed to stress the “going out” from those celebrations to serve the world in Chris’s name.

In so doing, the dreariness that sometimes pervades our present lives are pushed aside by a foretaste of the eternal life of glory beyond the grave through the glorious parts of the liturgy and their participation in it.

Most of the spiritual life of Anglo-Catholics is like other Anglicans: praying the Daily Office (the Prayer of the Church), studying Holy Scripture, and serving our neighbours by being available and reaching out to those in need, just as Jesus reached out to the poor and marginalised. A few practices, however, set them apart.

Remaining faithful to its ancient and universal pedigree, Anglo-Catholics practiced the invocation of the saints, particularly of Our Lady—the Blessed Virgin Mary and prayers for the dead. It is not uncommon for Anglo-Catholics to take up the Rosary as a daily devotion, to make pilgrimages to shrines like Walsingham in England.

Important Note:

There is no part of the authentic Church that worships Mary and the saints.  Christians worship God and God alone.  However, the Church and the scriptures teach that the saints are in communion with the Holy Spirit, interceding for us in Heaven. For this reason, we ask the saints for help to join their own prayers from around the throne of God with our own prayers of worship, pride and petition. 

The point of calling and petitioning the saints is because they have died and now have very close favour with God since they are with Him in Heaven. We ask the saints to intercede for us, not to distract us from Jesus, but to lead us to Him, since they are with Christ forever.

This is no different than asking a friend, family member, or loved one to pray for us. We have all asked for opinions, help, motivation, prayers, and much more from people we love. When we ask for help, we seek help from people who have experienced similar hardships, emotions, or life-experiences. Because the saints have persevered through suffering in their own lives, we ask them to pray for us so that they can sympathise with our struggles.

For Anglo-Catholics this devotion shown to the saints is nothing more than living out what we profess in our creeds; acknowledging the “communion of saints.” Just as we ask our friends and family on earth to pray for us, we ask the saints in heaven to pray. Death has been defeated by Christ and no longer divides the Church’s members from each other. The living and the dead, all are a part of the Body of Christ called to worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness.

A major distinguishing feature of Anglo-Catholic life and worship is the central place of the Eucharist.

We firmly believe in the real presence of Christ.

The bread and wine in the Eucharist are transformed into Body and Bood of Christ. The “how” of this process remains in the realms of mystery and is beyond human wisdom to explain.  What truly counts is the “what”, what happened to the bread and wine in the Eucharistic celebration.

 It is no longer bread and wine, but fully and absolutely Christ’s Body and Blood, the Body of Christ we take in Holy Communion and in so doing, our lives are revitalised and fortified.

Because very little of these devotions exist in the BCP, other resources have been produced to help Anglo-Catholics. The most notable and well known is the little volume St. Augustine’s Prayer Book. 

Conclusion

The Anglo-Catholic movement is important to the Anglican Church because it has a significant focus on revival and a re-emphasising of the ancient and traditional catholic elements within Anglicanism.  This manifests itself through its focus on traditional liturgy, the centrality of the Bible to the day-to-day life of Christians, sacramental theology, and a strong emphasis on the historic continuity of the Church of England with the wider catholic Church.

Beyond liturgical practices, Anglo-Catholics were also active in social reform movements, particularly in areas like education and care for the poor, further contributing to the Anglican Church's broader social impact.  In the early stages of the movement, it was taken up with enthusiasm by the men and women living in poverty and insecurity on the London docks.  Worship offered them a break from their crushing poverty by offering them a glimpse of the heavenly worship of the angels and saints around the throne of God in heaven.

The most destructive powers facilitating the decline of Anglo-catholicism in Australia today are Anglo-catholics themselves.  Too many of the clergy appear to be overly focussed on aping Rome in theology and worship and deliberately go out of their way to promote an antagonistic face to Evangelicals.  It is also apparent that many have lost their relationship with the poor and have failed to put an emphasis on charity and love, particularly with the poorest of the poor.

If Anglo-Catholicism is to survive it needs to return to its roots through a top to bottom reform.  Its liturgies need to be of the highest calibre, authentic and engaging with the congregation; its sermons apologetical in nature and biblically based. Its theology clearly anthropological and the face it shows to the world is unmissably a living expression of a genuine evangelical-catholic tradition.

Much could be learned from those visionaries of the Oxford Movement and their prioritising of reviving the Church.  They managed this revival by returning to basics and not by compromising the Truth of the Gospel. Not by models taken from the secular world or made flexible enough to keep people happy without challenging them too much.  They talked of a Church that was necessarily both evangelical and catholic. Their theology emphasised working with Christ, who guides the faithful through the challenges of modern life. 

 If we are defined primarily by our liturgies, our vestments, processions, incense, and clericalism then we are not Anglo-catholics. 

If our styles of worship are not carried out with dignity, solemnity and a sense of awe, then we are not Anglo-catholics in touch with our ancestry. 

If we do not prioritise the Bible, and

celebrate the sacraments and the Eucharist regularly (aiming at daily), then we are not Anglo-catholics.

If we do not demonstrably bring the Good News to the poor and

If we do not remain obedient to our Bishops then we are but pale replicas of what an Anglo community should look like to outsiders and what the world today needs.

Anglo-catholicism grew from the crucible of social unrest, political uncertainty, a decline in the commitment to Church with a growing atheism or at least powerful agnosticism and a clerical and episcopal distancing from the lives of their people. 

In so many ways the parallels with our Australian society today are unmissable.  This is an invitation, a challenge.  The time is right, the moment is now for an authentic Spirit led revival of an authentic Anglo-catholicism to be the Christian leaven in a struggling world.

Bishop Michael Hough                                                         February 2025

Some useful reading on Anglo-Catholicism

 

The Catholic Religion by Vernon Staley. This is an introduction to Christianity from an Anglo-Catholic perspective. It is often used for adult confirmation classes.

Christ, the Christian, and the Church by E. L. Mascall. This is a miniature systematic theology book by a premier Anglo-Catholic scholar of the 20th century. Be warned! It is not an easy read, but well worth it.

Corpus Christi, 2nd Ed, by E. L. Mascall. The book is a series of essays on Eucharistic theology from an Anglo-Catholic perspective. Topics such as sacrifice, presence, adoration, and benediction are addressed.

English Spirituality by Martian Thornton. This book explores catholic spirituality particular to the English context and tradition.

The Gospel and the Catholic Church by Michael Ramsey. In this volume, Archbishop Ramsey discusses the relationship of the more “Protestant” elements of Anglicanism with its more “catholic” elements. His thesis is that Anglicanism is both evangelical and catholic, because to be catholic is to be evangelical, and vice versa.

As mentioned above, The Saint Augustine Prayer Book already mentioned, this is the most widely used Anglo-Catholic devotional book.

Some useful Endnotes

(1)          Modernism: What is it?

Knowing something about modernism is important for the appreciation of the kind of pressures that gave rise to the Anglo-Catholic movement.  This is particularly important in its liturgies which sought to bring a taste of the glories of worship around the heavenly throne into the depressing life of the late 18th century world.  They represented an alternative to the darkness and gloom that was an unavoidable part of the background to Modernism.

       Modernism arose out of the nonconformist mood that thrived at the beginning of the 19th century.  It was a radical movement seeking to revitalize the way the world viewed life, art, politics, theology, morality and science, just about every aspect of daily living.  Modernism thrived between 1900 and 1930 and set about rejecting the European culture for having become too corrupt, complacent and lethargic, and ailing. 

          This dissatisfaction with the moral bankruptcy of everything European led modern thinkers and artists to explore other alternatives, especially primitive cultures. This new emerging culture set about undermining the established traditions and all forms of authority, in the hopes of transforming every aspect of contemporary society.

         A key characteristic of modernism is nihilism, the rejection of all religious and moral principles as the only means of obtaining social progress.

          The modernists repudiated the moral codes of the society in which they were living. It is not because they gave up believing in God, although many were atheists.  It was more that they rejected all conventional morality believing that it was too arbitrary and because it demanded a conformity that exerted unwarranted control over human feelings.  For the modernist, the established rules of moral and social conduct were a restrictive and limiting force over the human spirit. The individual needed to be freed from the baggage of hundreds of years of hypocrisy.

           Religious scepticism and atheism are hallmarks of modernism with the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche having a key role. It can be understood as humanity’s attempt to understand itself and human life leaving no role for God.

          Modernism, while influential, had some significant downsides. Its tendency to focus on abstraction and functionality, at the expense of aesthetic appeal and human connection, doomed society to a sense of futility and blandness. Alienation and pessimism dominated, modernism came to be seen as being elitist and inaccessible to a broad cross section of society. Its manifestation in in architecture led to the construction of sterile, cold repetitive designs that ignored the needs of people living in them. They were functional.

The themes of existential angst and alienation dominated literature and art all of which contributed to the bleak perspective on life that characterised just about every manifestation of the movement.

Existential angst refers to a feeling of deep anxiety or dread that comes as individuals contemplating the vastness and meaninglessness of human existence. It has a preoccupation with, death, freedom, and the lack of inherent purpose in life.

(2) Historical Timeline for Anglo-catholic movement in England

Christianity has had a long and colourful history, especially in England. This timeline starts from the second and third centuries when the first evidence of Christianity in Roman Britain was found - all the way to the present time. There are variations concerning the details available online, and this is but one version.

First Century:

43 AD - Roman conquest of Britain began, allowing Roman merchants to share stories with locals about Jesus and his disciples.

Second and Third Centuries:

Late second century - Archaeologists suggest that Christianity was properly introduced to Britain.

Circa 200 AD - Tertullian wrote the Adversus Judaeos, in which he included Britain in a list of places reached by Christianity. Around the same time, the Greek theologian Origen also wrote that Christianity had reached Britain.

Circa 249 AD to 259 AD - Under the Emperors Decius and Valerian, the persecution of Christians intensified. Aaron and Julius were two Romano-British martyrs who may have been martyred at this time.

258 AD - Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, is martyred.

260 AD - The Emperor Gallienus decriminalised Christianity, allowing the Church to own property as a corporate body.

Fourth and Fifth Centuries:

303 AD - The Great Persecution began with Emperor Diocletian’s decree that all churches were to be destroyed, all sacred texts and precious liturgical vessels confiscated, and meetings for worship forbidden. All Christian clergy were arrested.

304 AD - All Roman citizens were required to make a sacrifice to the Roman gods on pain of death. St Alban refused and became the first known Christian martyr in England.

312 AD - Constantine won the Battle of Milvian Bridge, after his decision to adorn his army’s shields with the Christian symbol, the Chi-Rho. Believing that he won the battle in alliance with the Christian God, he decided to restore confiscated church property and offered public funds to churches in need

313 AD - Licinius followed Constantine’s advice, defeated his rival and, as a result, started practising religious tolerance. Christians were compensated for the wrongs done to them.

314 AD - Three bishops from Britain attended a conference in France.

320 AD - Licinius changed his mind and started persecuting Christians again.

324 AD - Constantine waged war against Licinius, once more under the banner of the Christian faith. He won.

325 AD - Licinius was executed for attempted rebellion. The Council of Nicea was summoned.

330 AD - Constantine built Byzantium as the new Christian capital.

390 AD - The Christian church discovered that the threat of ex-communication was a powerful weapon against even Emperors when Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, refused to give Emperor Theodosius the sacrament of communion in retaliation for a government-sanctioned massacre.

407 AD - The Romans left Britain.

410 AD - Rome was sacked by Christian barbarians.

431 AD - The Council of Ephesus convened to discuss the use of theotokos, the Greek word for “bearer of God” on the Virgin Mary.

Circa 450 AD - Pagan Saxons from Germany invaded Eastern England. As they slowly advanced across the country, Christianity disappeared except in the Southwest.

451 AD - The Council of Chalcedon confirmed the decisions of the Council of Ephesus: that Mary is indeed theotokos, the Mother of God.

Sixth and Seventh Centuries

597 AD - St Augustine’s mission arrived from Rome and started preaching in Kent. Eventually, the people of Kent and Essex were converted.

601 AD - St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

627 AD - The King of Northumbria converted to Christianity; his people eventually followed.

630 AD - Missionaries started preaching in East Anglia and Hampshire.

653 AD - The King of Mercia and his people converted to Christianity.

664 AD - The King of Northumbria decided to follow the Roman rather than the Celtic Church.

680 AD - St. Wilfrid began converting Sussex, the last Saxon kingdom to become Christian.

Eight and Ninth Centuries

723 AD - Boniface, Apostle of the Germans, cut down Thor’s Oak (also called Jove’s Oak and Donar’s Oak) near Fritzlar.

766 AD - Willehad commenced his missionary activities among the Frisians.

772 AD - The pope allied with Charlemagne and the Franks to Christianise the Anglo-Saxons.

851 AD - The Danes invaded England.

878 AD - Alfred the Great defeated the Danes, who agreed to be baptised.

10th and 11th Centuries

960 AD - Benedictine monk St. Dunstan was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury.

Circa 970 AD - The bishop of Winchester introduced the tradition of medieval Christian drama.

Late 10th Century - There is a religious revival in England and many new monasteries are founded

1061 - Richeldis de Faverches experienced a vision of the Virgin Mary asking her to build a replica of the Holy House at Nazareth.

1066 - The Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power.

1096 - The First Crusade took place.

1101 - The Crusade of 1101 took place.

12th and 13th Centuries

1147 to 1149 - The Second Crusade took place.

1154 to 1159 - Englishman Nicholas Breakspear became Pope Adrian IV.

1170 - Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in his cathedral by followers of King Henry II. He was canonised as a martyr.

1187 to 1192 - The Third Crusade took place.

1215 - The Parliament of England started. The two archbishops, nineteen bishops, the abbots and priors of the largest religious houses, collectively known as the Lords Spiritual were required to take their seats in the House of Lords.

The 1220s - Dominican and Franciscan Friars arrived in England and built friaries in most towns.

14th and 15th Centuries

1342 to 1416 - The famous English mystic Julian of Norwich lived.

1378 to 1416 - The Western Schism (also called the Papal Schism) occurred.

The 1380s - John Wycliffe denounced transubstantiation: scripture was the best guide to understanding God's intentions and that liturgy, internal abuse within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government, distracted from that study. His followers were called Lollards.

1414 - Sir John Oldcastle, a suspected Lollard, escaped from imprisonment, and prompted a planned rising in London.

1414 to 1417 - The Council of Constance was held.

1417 - Sir John Oldcastle was executed.

1438 - The autobiography of a famous mystic, The Book of Margery Kempe was written.

The 16th Century

1515 - The Protestant Reformation swept through Europe.

1525 - William Tyndale translated the New Testament into English.

1530 - Protestant Thomas Hitton was burned at Maidstone.

1534 - The Act of Supremacy made Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Elizabeth Barton, the Holy Maid of Kent, was hanged at Tyburn for treason - “proven” by her prophesies against the King.

1535 - Thomas More and Cardinal John Fisher were executed for refusing to accept the King’s supremacy.

1536 - William Tyndale was burned; smaller monasteries in England dissolved.

1539 - Henry VIII closed the larger monasteries.

1545 - Latin mass was replaced by mass in English.

1546 - Anne Askew was martyred.

1549 - The first Book of Common Prayer was published.

1553 - Queen Mary started to reverse the English Reformation and restore Roman Catholicism.

1554 - Queen Mary revived the Heresy Act and executing Protestants.

1558 - Mary died with no heir, leaving Elizabeth as Queen.

1559 - Queen Elizabeth restored the Act of Supremacy.

1570 - The Pope excommunicated Queen Elizabeth.

The 17th Century

1605 - The Gunpowder Plot, a Catholic conspiracy to blow up parliament, was discovered.

1611 - The King James Bible was published.

1612 - The first Baptist Church in England was formed. Edward Wightman was executed by fire for heresy.

1642-46 - The Civil War disrupted life in England, prompting people to form their own independent churches separate from the Church of England.

1650 - George Fox was arrested for blasphemy.

1661 - The Corporation Act required all town officials to become members of the Church of England.

1662 - The Act of Uniformity required all clergy to use the Book of Common Prayer.

1665 - The Five-Mile Act forbade non-Anglican ministers from coming within five miles of towns with a mayor and corporation.

1678 - John Bunyan published The Pilgrim's Progress.

1689 - The Toleration Act allowed Protestants who did not belong to the Church of England to have their own places of worship and their own preachers.

The 18th Century

1701 - The Act of Settlement was passed. It banned Catholics or spouses of Catholics from succeeding to the throne. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was founded to facilitate missionary work in British colonies (especially among colonists in North America).

1729 - The Holy Club was formed at Christ Church, Oxford.

The 1730s - Evangelicalism emerged as a distinct phenomenon.

1735 - General James Oglethorpe, John Wesley and Charles Wesley travel to America to be ministers to the colonists and missionaries to the Native Americans. Howell Harris and Daniel Rowland each had a conversion experience.

1738 - John Wesley converted.

1739 - George Whitefield began preaching.

1790 - The role of women in Methodist churches diminished.

1795 - The Wesleyan Methodists separated from the Church of England.

Late 18th Century - England saw a period of religious revival. A group of Christians, many of whom lived in Clapham, formed the Clapham Sect.

The 19th Century

1829 - The Catholic Emancipation Act allowed Catholics to become MPs and hold public office.

1836 - Membership of the Methodist societies rises to 360,000. The British Methodist Conference allowed the creation of "Weekday schools".

1844 - The Free Church of England was established.

1848 - Mother Priscilla Lydia Sellon founded the Anglican Sisters of Charity and became the first woman to take religious vows within the Anglican Communion since the English Reformation.

1850 - The first building specifically built to house an Anglican Sisterhood was consecrated at Abbeymere in Plymouth.

1851 - A survey showed only about 40% of the population are at church or chapel on a given Sunday.

1865 - The Salvation Army was founded.

1881 - A survey showed only about 1/3 of the population attend church on a Sunday.

The 20th Century

Early 20th Century - The Pentecostal Movement began.

1952 - C S Lewis published his book Mere Christianity.

1958 - J B Phillips published The New Testament in Modern English.

1970s - House Churches were formed. The Alpha Course was invented.

1978 - Karol Józef Wojtyła became Pope John Paul II.

1982 - Pope John Paul II became the first reigning Pope to travel to the United Kingdom to meet Queen Elizabeth II.

1994 - The Church of England ordained women priests.

The 21st Century

2001 - Major lawsuits emerged accusing Catholic clergy of sexual abuse perpetrated against minors.

2003 - A Gallup survey showed that only about one sixth of Europeans attend regular religious services, less than half gave God "high importance", and only about 40% believe in a "personal God".

2005 - Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger became Pope Benedict XVI.

2005 to 2013 - Pope Benedict XVI defrocked 400 priests accused of sexual abuse.

2010 - Pope Benedict XVI visited the United Kingdom and personally proclaimed the beatification of John Henry Newman.

2013 - Pope Benedict XVI resigned. Jorge Mario Bergoglio was elected the 266th pope of the Roman Catholic Church, becoming Pope Francis. He was the first Jesuit pope, the first pope from the Americas, and the first from the Southern Hemisphere.

2021 - Pope Francis allowed bishops to institute women to the ministries of acolyte and lector, previously reserved to men.